Jetons
Reckoning counters (commonly known as jetons) are coin-like objects, usually made of copper alloy, intended to assist in arithmetical calculations, particularly in accountancy, at times when illiteracy was widespread and cumbersome Roman numerals were used to record values and sums of money.
Figure 1: A
jeton with a design copied from the silver pennies of Edward I.
They would normally be used with a checkerboard or cloth, in a process similar to using an abacus. Initially actual coins were used in reckoning, but from the late 13th century special counters were made. They came into general use from the 14th century and continued to be widely used in accounting until the late 17th century, when the spread of Arabic numerals made written calculations much simpler, reducing greatly reliance on manual reckoning.
Figure 2: A jetton displaying the French coat of arms. Nuremberg jeton of the 'Christus inspirational' type. SUSS-D08CF5 found in the Arundel area in 2004
Some early English counters had designs copied from silver pennies of Edward I (Figure 1) while others imitated French coin-types. From the early 15th century most jetons used in England were imported, with France initially being the main supplier. The city of Tournai was a major manufacturing centre. The stylised designs, such as crowns, the French coat of arms (as on figure 2) and decorated crosses, used on these imports were based on French coin-types. Religious inscriptions, such as AVE MARIA GRACIA PLENA (Hail Mary, full of grace), were common, but the legends soon became garbled.
Figure 3: A jeton of Hans Krauwinkel. HAMP-86F623
Nuremberg took over as the main European centre for jeton manufacture in the 16th century. Many designs were used, the commonest being an orb in a border (the 'Reichsapfel', or imperial orb, design) and a winged lion. From the later 16th century manufacturers such as Hans Schultes, Hans Krauwinkel (figure 3) and Cornelius Lauffer put their names on the jetons they produced. Literate legends were restored and mechanised production introduced. Many 17th century jetons had the portrait and name of foreign rulers, notably Louis XIV of France, as their design. France continued to produce an extensive series of jetons of its own, often with designs of political or mythical significance. These were widely distributed to governmental office-holders. After the 17th century the production of jetons continued at Nuremberg and elsewhere but increasingly for use as gambling counters rather than reckoning counters.
Bibliography
F P Barnard, The Casting Counter and the Counting Board, Oxford, 1916
M Mitchiner, Jetons, Medalets and Tokens 1: The Medieval Period and Nuremberg, London, 1988
M Mitchiner, Jetons, Medalets and Tokens 2: The Low Countries and France, London, 1991
